The 3 concepts of Jihad

To understand the concept of physical struggle/jihad, we have to analyze the context of its use in the times of the last prophet and before.

It is the unalterable law of God that when He sends a messenger in a people, these particular people are left with no option, but to hearken His warnings and calls during an interval of time whose expiry can not be hastened nor delayed except by Allah 15:5,16:61,53:58. Allah states about this period that His messengers show the community, starting from the leaders in mischief greatly responsible for the general moral degradation of their people down to the poorest and most insignificant elements of the community 17:16,73:11 the signs of the truth in the heavens and earth, as well as in their own deepest selves 41:53,51:27 to the point that the people must recognize it and mend their evil ways. 

They are seized with affliction or tried with a sign from God when they reject the messenger 11:52-60,64-68 sent to them in order to humble themselves and mend their ways 7:94. They are urged to reason and ask for God's forgiveness lest the fate of past sinful nations each greater than other in might 43:8, befalls them. They all received God's messengers with the bayinat ie the undeniable evidence, but on account of persistent rejection, were all uprooted by a grasp so encompassing and violent that it is pictured as beginning from their foundations up 

16:26,40:22,18:55,22:42-8"And if they reject you, then already before you did the people of Nuh and Ad and Samood reject (prophets). And the people of Ibrahim and the people of Lut, As well as those of Madyan and Musa (too) was rejected, but I gave respite to the unbelievers, then did I overtake them, so how (severe) was My disapproval. So how many a town did We destroy while it was unjust, so it was fallen down upon its roofs, and (how many a) deserted well and palace raised high. Have they not travelled in the land so that they should have hearts with which to understand, or ears with which to hear? For surely it is not the eyes that are blind, but blind are the hearts which are in the breasts. And they ask you to hasten on the punishment, and Allah will by no means fail in His promise, and surely a day with your Lord is as a thousand years of what you number. And how many a town to which I gave respite while it was unjust, then I overtook it, and to Me is the return". 

Mankind is continuously encouraged to research and analyse the history of past nations, unavoidably seeing in it the divine pattern. History is the only extensive evidential base for the contemplation and analysis of how societies function. Proper contemplation of that evidence leads to moral reform, providing a background for one to test his own moral sense against that of individuals and societies of the past when faced with similar situations. The past causes the present, and so the future.

This shows that even in this life, the Creator's relationship with man is not merely based on the physical law, as with other creatures devoid of moral accountability and freewill. The moral law is working side by side with it. Sometimes that higher reality is clearer than at other times, and the clearest manifestation of it is during the times of the prophets. Past nations to whom messengers were sent become means by which the evidence for the hereafter is presented. If moral acts have results in this world, and these results never manifest fully in the world, then it necessitates that another world must exist where the consequences of sin and righteousness will fully appear.

 
If these nations mend their ways during their time of respite, the Divine affliction is removed, as happened in the prophet Jonas' lifetime during which they all believed 

10:98"When they believed, We removed from them the chastisement of disgrace in this world's life and We gave them provision till a time". 

If they dont and in addition try uprooting or killing the messengers sent to them with the undeniable bayinat, continuously oppose them and conspire against them to prevent the establishment of the way of God 42:13 then those pinpointed as the guilty ones by the prophets 44:22 in these nations will incur Divine affliction. They may be put to the sword by the believers themselves as in Moses and Muhammad's time, or completely annihilated by natural cataclysms. At other times God might send a powerful enemy to bring destruction as happened to the Israelites that rejected Jesus, or they are subjugated to the followers of the messengers for generations to come. Concerning this reality, the Psalmist states 

Ps46:9"Go and see the works of the Lord, that He has wrought devastation in the earth". 

Allah in the Quran alludes to all these potential outcomes, including the one that will be inflicted upon the rejecters of the prophet Muhammad, similarly to what He had decreed in the times of Moses 

6:65-7"Say: "He has the power that He should send on you a chastisement from above you or from beneath your feet, or that He should throw you into confusion, (making you) of different parties; and make some of you taste the fighting of others." See how repeatedly We display the signs that they may understand. And your people call it a lie and it is the very truth. Say: "I am not placed in charge of you." For every prophecy is a term and you will come to know (it)".

As regards implementing the divine will by the sword, the Quran retells the stories of past nations who were ordained, against a mightier enemy and with God's help, to uproot unrighteousness and establish the will of God in a specific land. Such was the case with the Israelites back in the times of Moses. They had to cleanse the blessed land of Canaan from its unrighteous dwellers, and the same command was issued to Saul/Talut and David 2:246-252, then finally the Ishmaelites. 

Under the Ishmaelite prophet and just as was commanded to the previous semitic prophets, Muslims had to purge the ancient temple of monotheism in Mecca from its unworthy guardians who had swayed into the ways of polytheism 

22:40-1"Those who have been expelled from their homes without a just cause except that they say: Our Lord is Allah. And had there not been Allah's repelling some people by others, certainly there would have been pulled down cloisters and churches and synagogues and mosques in which Allah´s name is much remembered; and surely Allah will help him who helps His cause; most surely Allah is Strong, Mighty. Those who, should We establish them in the land, will keep up prayer and pay the poor-rate and enjoin good and forbid evil; and Allah´s is the end of affairs". 

So just as Muhammad and the Children of Ishmael were commanded, Allah previously ordered in the days of Moses and the prophets of the children of Israel to fight in His way, see Deut1:41,Deut7,9:4-6,12:1-3,20:16-18 and all throughout Deuteronomy. The Israelites are commanded to cleanse the land from idolatry, destroying all altars and not leaving a physical trace of idolatrous practices. All subsequent Israelite prophets were to purge all remaining traces of idolatry and evil from the land, by the sword without holding back whether it involves killing Jews or non Jews as prophecised in Isa1:25. 

In the HB, we read that God's established way of eradicating idolatry is so forceful that He sometimes even tasks non-Jews to do the job when the Israelites failed Jer48:10. This happened when the Chaldeans were sent to destroy the Moabites 

"Cursed be he who performs the Lord's work deceitfully, and cursed be he who withholds his sword from blood" 

or again when the Assyrians of Sennacherib were raised by God so as to destroy, exile and enslave the idolatrous Kingdom of Israel Amos6:11-14. 

This reoccurred with the Babylonians of Nebuchadnezzar whom God calls His servant for performing His will, sent firstly to inflict massacre upon the Israelites for their repeated transgressions, and then upon those Ammonites and Edomites that occupied the holy lands and reintroduced idolatry in it Jer25:9,49:19. Later on it would be the non-Jew Cyrus, king of Persia who would be divinely aroused and commanded to wage war against the Babylonians until their defeat, expulsion from the holy land and the return of the Jews to Israel so as to re-establish monotheism in it Jer50:14-21,51:1,53. 

The same semitic pattern of prophethood is thus found in regards to Muhammad, the Ishmaelites and the Kaaba. God does not and never did tolerate the presence of idolatry in a land declared sacred and dedicated to monotheism. So God tasked His prophet with re-establishing the monotheistic practice at the Kaaba, and should his opponents try fighting and exiling him and his followers, they will consequently be uprooted from the land they had complete dominion over 17:76-7. It was not the prophet's job to relocate the uninvited idols of the Kaaba, especially after years of warning those that put them there, against their corrupt practices, and the impending forceful expulsion. 

Besides the people of Jonas/Yunus all nations recorded in the Quran, to whom messengers were sent with such warnings, faced the punishment of death and sometimes complete annihilation as described for the messengers of old throughout sura 7 and 

11,26,29,40:5,14:13-15,58:5"Surely those who act in opposition to Allah and His Messenger shall be laid down prostrate as those before them were laid down prostrate; and indeed We have revealed clear communications, and the unbelievers shall have an abasing chastisement" 

26:208-9"And We did not destroy any town but it had (its) warners, To remind, and We are never unjust". 

This divine scourge does not befall the sinful nation so long as all the righteous and the prophets have fled the land 4:165,8:33,11:58,12:110,17:15,19:46-50,20:77,28:59.

God makes sure his messengers are protected, assisted along with their followers. They will be successful over the rejectors, by the establishment of the revealed message, and eventually, the destruction of a nation that continues to reject 37:171-3,40:5,51. That system is assured during the various phases of warning, augmented and pronounced warning, communicating the truth to the extent that no one is left with an excuse to deny it, migration and acquittal. Between each phase the messenger and his followers are told to wait for God's instructions as only He knows when each step has reached its term. In fact in 68:48 Muhammad is told to 

"wait with patience for the command of your Lord, and be not like the Companion of the Fish". 

This excellent institution of prophethood in spite of its accompanying clear evidence and miracle, is not able to eradicate the differences of people in belief and disbelief because this difference is caused by the people themselves 2:213. Such a difference cannot be removed by those arguments and evidence because it is not based on reason but on envy and rebellion. The fact remains that if Allah had so wished He could have prevented this difference 2:253,5:48,6:35,149,11:118 but He has established a system of cause and effect in the universe, endowed man with freewill, this resulted in differences among the people, some were resolved through the sending of prophets but not all as God doesnt compel mankind to follow a certain path, it depends on each person's will. As a result of these differences created by the people came conflicts, and fighting was ordained on the believers and their prophets in the way of Allah as a criterion of faith 

8:37"so that Allah might separate the impure from the good” 

29:3“and most certainly Allah will know those who believe and most certainly He will know the hypocrites”.

The Quran addresses the Arabs in no uncertain terms and in a time where none would have imagined for such an outcome to materialize, telling them that the result of their rejection will be similar to the peoples of the Messengers of old such as Noah, Hud, Lot, Shuayb, Salih, Moses etc. Just as these people were judged on a lower but nonetheless terrifying scale for rejecting God's communications and attempting to kill the message bearers, a day will come where God's judgement will be even greater 69:1-12. 

The Quran places Muhammad and his followers right inside that pattern since the very beginning of the prophetic mission. It would remind them of this reality and comfort them by saying this Law of God will never change. The rejecters are not denying the messenger, the individual; they are denying the Lord of the Universe 

6:33-4"We know indeed that what they say certainly grieves you, but surely they do not call you a liar; but the unjust deny the communications of Allah. And certainly messengers before you were rejected, but they were patient on being rejected and persecuted until Our help came to them; and there is none to change the words of Allah, and certainly there has come to you some information about the messengers".

But a prophet's function isnt to bring God's retribution, rather to create spiritual reform before a day comes where no reform will be possible. The prophecies of destruction are warnings that can be undone depending on the people's answer. A prophetic warning is not irreversible. The Quran gives the example of the nation of the prophet Yunus/Jonas to demonstrate that reality. As shown earlier, they reformed themselves prior to the expiry of their time of respite, leading to the prophecies of destruction being nullified. A prophet thus, first and foremost conveys clear warnings. The Quran would call this step a verbal jihad 25:52 because it was so hard and dangerous for the messenger and his early followers.

Once all the stages of warning and thorough explanation of the truth pass, as the era of calls to reform reaches its end and the prophetic warnings are about to unfold, the prophet must declare his unambiguous acquittal from the rejecters. This was emphatically done in sura Kafirun by the prophet towards the enemies among the Quraysh. Abraham had done the same before as he dissociated himself from his nation and family to demonstrate that no common ground exists between the 2 positions and nor would there ever be 60:4, as Hud did before him 11:54-5. For the very first time in the prophet Muhammad's career, his rejecters are addressed with the phrase 

"Say: O kafirun". 

The label of "kafirun" at this specific time of the prophetic mission makes it now clear that no reform will come from the addressees, that their continuous animosity and opposition to a messenger of God and the arguments sent with him, after long years of admonition was not really due to the attachment and respect, as they claimed, to their ancestral ways. Only their desires and worldly interests that had shaped their religion was what stood in the way. Many verses reveal how little consideration they had for their inherited ways. They were ready to bargain and compromise their system so long as their worldly interests were preserved. They suggested that for them to embrace faith then the only possible option was to either bring another Quran or to make some changes in it which would be acceptable to them 

68:9"They wish that you should be pliant so they (too) would be pliant" 

17:73"And surely they had purposed to turn you away from that which We have revealed to you, that you should forge against Us other than that, and then they would certainly have taken you for a friend" 

10:15"those who hope not for Our meeting say: Bring a Quran other than this or change it". 

The prophet was divinely protected and firmly established in his faith 17:74, to face these moral challenges 

10:104"If you are in doubt as to my religion, then (know that) I do not worship those whom you worship other than Allah! But I worship Allah Who causes you to die and I have been commanded that I should be of the believers". 

The people of Muhammad were now clearly rejectors of faith and would soon be subjugated as the nations of past messengers.

As shown earlier, the philosophy of armed struggle/jihad as a form of divine punishment is confined to the prophetic era during which a previously warned nation is to be destroyed. 

The 2nd type of jihad is the establishment of the will of God on a specific land (Canaan in the times of Moses, Mecca in the times of Muhammad). It is enforced by a prophet, and his followers makes sure that the new order established is maintained for that land.

Outside these 2 scenarios, the 3rd and last context to which armed jihad is applicable, is in self-defence, when war is waged against a Muslim community solely for its religion. This type of armed struggle covers the prophetic era and beyond. In that context, if their opponents engage them in battle they will be defeated, provided their objective purely is the end to religious persecution. This was Allah's way before 

48:22-23"Such has been the course of Allah that has indeed run before, and you shall not find a change in Allah´s course". 

It is to be noted that even the most zealous proponents of Jihad as the struggle to spread Islam to all the world, including nations that do not pose an explicit threat to the Islamic mainland, still maintain that this form of struggle aims at removing all obstacles a human being may face in his freedom to choose Islam or not. If a nation opposes the objective presentation of Islam to its people, so that they may freely choose to adopt or reject it, then an armed struggle by the Islamic state against that oppressive nation is justified. Once the Islamic state is established, then its citizen are free to choose between Islam and payment of zakat, or their own religion and payment of jizya. We thus see that even this view of jihad contains the element of self-defence as well as freedom of religious expression, in accordance with the Quranic axiom of no compulsion in religion. Another thing to note is that this interpretation of Jihad basically is what the western "civilized" world has been doing throughout history, whether the imperialists, christian colonizers, communists or democrats. Contrary to the Islamic model, the invaded people are not given the choice on whether to choose the new system or not, except for the "democratic" invasions to some extent.

God gives glad tidings of success 24:55 in this armed struggle. It is a great test of resolve and faith 9:14,16. 2:153-157 was specifically revealed to prepare the believers for the trials they would have to bear for having chosen he path of truth. They are told to remain firm in their faith so as to find the inner strength to bear that burden, because their opponents will not give up. They have realized that to stop Islam's spread they had to annihilate the Muslims themselves. The verses indicate that the great trial is near, it mentions martyrdom in the way of Allah, and praising it, saying that it is not a death, it is life. It lays great emphasizes on the virtue of "sabr" which is one of the most praiseworthy characteristics of the believer. 

2:190-5 allowed retaliation for the first time 

"And fight in the way of Allah with those who fight with you" 

the root qaf-t-l means to kill. But used in the form qaatilu entails interaction, killing opposite killing or killing against killing. Literally speaking it should be rendered "engage in killing opposite killing" and because of a lack of non-Arabic word conveying that sense, the interactive word "fight" has been preferred and used by both Muslim and non Muslim translators, in all instances where the same form is used. In 9:111 for example, the consequence of qaatilu/"engage in killing opposite killing" either results in killing the opposite party, or being killed and that is because there is a clear will to kill from the opposite side. When the original order to qaatilu was issued in 2:190, it came with 2 important messages:

- do it against those who yuqaatilunakum
- do not transgress the limits when applying the command to qaatilu

What constitutes transgression in that context? To apply the command of qaatilu in a different way than prescribed in the verse, ie against people other than those who "yuqaatilunakum".
This again, not only agrees with what was said about the verb being interactive in nature, as attested by its usage and the dictionaries stating that the word is used "in a context of a counter-effort to kill", but also with the Quran's overall message, which is to live at peace with anyone, Muslim or else, that does not aggress the Muslims unjustly, and defend against those that engage in hostilities without any reason other than hatred for the religion.

The ethics of war as laid down in the verse is to remain within the bounds of 

"and do not exceed the limit. Verily, Allah loves not those who exceed the limit". 

This principle applies to Jihad in all of its aspects;
- whether for the establishment of God's will in a specific land, as was the case in Mecca with Muhammad or Moses in Canaan
- whether for the punishment of rejecters in the prophetic era, as was the case with the Ishmaelites and the Israelites
- or the timeless right to self defence. At that point it became inevitable that the early persecuted Muslims should fight in self-defense or they would be destroyed. It is the natural right of all Muslims and every human being to 

26:227"defend themselves after they are oppressed". 

The divinely sanctioned right, throughout the ages and nations, of jihad in self defense has a clear objective. It isnt for any material gain or territorial expansion, but to dispel mischief, and corruption/fasad on the earth and stop religious oppression 

2:251,22:40,3:167"Come, fight in the way of Allah or [at least] defend". 

It is inadmissible that man be prevented from choosing or practicing Islam due to pressure and fear. In such a society, war is justified until one is free to choose or reject Islam 

2:256"There is no compulsion in religion; truly the right way has become clearly distinct from error". 

This shows that under no circumstances should be be forced in spiritual matters, whether it is to accept or reject Islam. 

The Quran would therefore stir up the believers for battle based on the reality of their physical and spiritual oppression, whether men, women, old and young alike 2:217,4:75,8:26,22:39-40,28:57,60:1,85:8-10,96:9-10. God commands to fight for justice. Any other reason to fight is oppression and fighting "in the way of the devil" 4:76. This was an undeniable reality and necessity. They had to overcome any fear and trust that Allah's help will come at the battlefield. He will weaken the struggle of the oppressors no mater the forces they can muster 4:84. Even when this was established, the prophet still did not expect the Muslims to shed their blood for a decision from which they were excluded. Consensual agreement, referred to in the Quran as shuraa, always preceded the final decision to go to war, as here stated in the context of the battle of Uhud 

3:159"and seek their advise in all matters of public policy". 

Once the decision is attained by common agreement, the plan must be launched with an absolute trust in God 

3:159"then when you have decided upon a course of action, trust in Allah; for surely Allah loves those who place their trust in Him". 

Even the prophet after that point may not revoke the covenant and act according to his whims 3:161-4. It is to be noted that in that particular context of Uhud, the prophet was the minority opinion. He advised confronting the Meccan alliance within Medina, instead of meeting them at Uhud. Yet he never protested the decision once it was mutually agreed upon, nor did he blame the majority once the battle was over and the Muslims were defeated. No matter how supreme the wisdom of the Muslim community's ruler is, in this case a prophet of God, the right of the remaining members of society to be consulted can never be waved off. We see here that in this defeat of the Muslims at Uhud, an important lesson was implemented as to the conduct of a Muslim leader.

Once everybody is set to leave with a full trust in their decision and the will of God, then their physical, mental, financial capacities as compared to their enemies only become secondary issues. Only if these conditions would result in overburdening and harming the person and the people depending on him, even before engaging in fighting, then such person is justified in holding back from fighting 9:91,48:17.

The others rely on Allah, who knows their material and physical limits, and will assist them 8:66. They are fully justified in fighting back, and will be helped in the process 

22:38"Surely Allah will defend those who believe; surely Allah does not love any one who is unfaithful, ungrateful". 

Part of the 613 Jewish commandments is to similarly be fearless in battle and fully trust in God Deut3:22,7:21,20:3. It was their failure to trust in God's capacity to defeat, through a weak army, a much stronger adversary that caused their 40 years desert wandering prior to entering the land promised to Abraham. God calls mankind to fight in His way first to solve the worldly obstacles to which a particular people is confronted, but these worldly obstacles are connected to the spiritual aspect of man's existence. This means that fighting in God's way liberates man from both physical and spiritual obstacles. That is why those who fear worldly losses in the process, are told that this world is ultimately ephemeral whether in case of victory or loss. They would thus have certainly reason to fear should their battle be solely aimed at achieving worldly objectives. But since fighting in God's way includes spiritual objectives, then one has no reason to fear because the Hereafter in which the benefits of that struggle will be certainly found, is everlasting 4:74. 

Choosing to serve God in this way, putting one's own life on the line to defend the oppressed and advance the cause of truth is the most selfless material and spiritual sacrifice one can do. But even then, as in any army, there are degrees among soldiers, hence the prophet saying that military participation is ranked 3rd in terms of divine appreciation 

"I asked the Prophet 'Which deed is loved most by Allah?" He replied, 'To offer prayers at their early (very first) stated times.' " `Abdullah asked, "What is the next (in goodness)?" The Prophet said, "To be good and dutiful to one's parents," `Abdullah asked, "What is the next (in goodness)?" The Prophet said, "To participate in Jihad for Allah's Cause." `Abdullah added, "The Prophet narrated to me these three things, and if I had asked more, he would have told me more". 

However those among the voluntaries going to such extent in their selfless sacrifice that they are martyred, the prophetic sayings describe them as meriting the highest reward. worldly gains certainly follow as a collateral result of wars, and although are certainly the just compensation of those sacrificing their wealth and resources on the way, the Quran stresses that these worldly gains must never be the motive. In a hadith the prophet even answered about someone fighting in God's cause but also seeking material reward, that in the hereafter 

"He would receive no reward" (sunan Abu Dawud). 

The Prophet's conflict with his tribe was not because of any worldly reason; it was only for the freedom to practice the religion of God 4:74,94 in the place originally dedicated for it. The Quraysh had to fulfil their obligations towards the Kaaba because they were its custodians. If they were not ready for this, then they had no right to keep it in their custody nor did they have any right to prevent people from returning to the pure Abrahamic legacy through intimidations, or stopping others from worshiping on a land settled for that purpose since the days of Ibrahim 22:25-9. This was Allah's way before in regards to Canaan, even prior to the Israelites settling in it, when its natives progressively abandoned the ways of righteousness, despite knowing it, perverted it beyond recognition Gen15:16,Deut9,1Sam4:7. The Israelites were sent in precisely to purge the sacred land from its unworthy custodians. When the prophetic warnings materialized upon the Quraysh and their grip on the lives and freedom of the people was loosened, then the people hastened to accept Islam in multitudes now that they were suddenly afforded with the liberty to choose their own religion. 110:2 predicted this reality long before the conquest of Mecca "And you see men embrace the religion of God in multitudes", and this was through the guidance of the Heavenly Book that transcended all obstacles to give life to the spiritually dead 6:122.

Accepting to fight in Allah's way results in reward in this world as well as the next 48:18-21, but turning one's back to the enemy and refusing to shoulder that duty makes a person 48:16,8:16"deserving of Allah's wrath" in this world as well as the next. Here are the prophet Jeremiah's words 

Jer48:10"A curse on anyone who is lax in doing the Lord’s work! A curse on anyone who keeps their sword from bloodshed". 

As already pointed, history bares testimony to this fact with the example of the Israelites who had refused to put their trust in the prophet Musa to go forth and fight in Allah's way. Their worldly reward was consequently taken away and they were forbidden entry into the blessed land and sent to wander 40 years in the desert until the last one of those who had shown cowardice was dead. A new generation was then raised instead, one that would willingly take up arms, fight and conquer as divinely ordained. See the Quran in 2:243,5:21-26 as well as the Hebrew Bible in Numbers13:28-33,14:1-35,21:14-35,26:64-65 and Deut2:7,14-19,Josh5:6.

The Muslims are warned that the very same fate awaits those who turn their backs to the prophet when they are called to struggle in Allah's way 

9:38-39"If you do not go forth, He will chastise you with a painful chastisement and bring in your place a people other than you, and you will do Him no harm; and Allah has power over all things". 

True Believers rejoice at any opportunity of serving God's cause, like Joshua and Caleb who rent their clothes telling the remaining cowards among the Israelites to stand up for battle. In the end, what God wishes to accomplish is independant of the direct addressees of a prophet. As demonstrated with Musa and the Israelites, He could easily uproot them in case of disobedience and rise another people instead. 

However, those who followed the prophet Muhammad in times of peace and war are the opposite example. Contrary to the majority of Israelites in Moses' time who refused to march forth despite witnessing all kinds of divine miracles, the majority of Muhammad's followers fought when ordered to. This is corroborative of their desperate situation, leaving them no choice but to fight for their survival, the survival of their families and their rights to worship Allah. Because of all their sacrifices and because they went forth when they were commanded to, they were made successors in the land 6:133-134 and they earned Allah's rewards in this world as well as, God wills, in the next.

In addition, the Muslims are commanded not to neglect the obligatory prayers, even when facing the enemy at the battlefield 4:101-3. This shows the true objective of these warriors fighting to free themselves and their people from religious bondage; fighting was not their primary occupation for when the time of holding the timed and ordained communion with their Lord arrived, they performed their spiritual obligations despite the imminent danger.
 
Even though the object of the enemies of Islam when they take on arms and engage Muslims in war is to exterminate them entirely, the Muslims are told that the Divine object in assisting the believers in punishing the disbelievers at war is not to exterminate them, but to deliver a blow that would deter them from continuous aggression 3:127. They are therefore told to fight only the people who attack them 

60:9"those who made war upon you on account of (your) religion, and drove you forth from your homes and backed up (others) in your expulsion". 

Defensive warfare cannot be predicated on personal whims or desires. War ethics also include not fighting near the Kaaba except if initially attacked. If the enemy desists from deliberate aggression then fighting must stop. This in turn indicates that there should be no rancor against the enemy when they correct themselves or even when they end the hostility. The Muslims, even though oppressed should not seek blind revenge at all costs, rather they should try engaging in peaceful negotiations before 8:39-40. In a dominant position, Muslims must remain conscious of their past weakness before Allah strengthened them and not refuse the hand of peace from non-muslims 4:94. In all cases retaliation must be 

22:60"with the like of that with which he has been afflicted and he has been oppressed".

2:194"Thus, if anyone commits aggression against you, attack him just as he has attacked you - but remain conscious of God". 

This means that even while seeking just and equal retribution, one must remain conscious of God's limits. The Quran's supreme realism reflects even in such situations, telling those whose spirituality is of a high degree, that if they are able to be patient and forgive for Allah's sake, instead of exercising their legitimate right to retaliation when they have taken the upper hand then Allah will compensate them for their magnanimity 

42:39-43,16:126-8"but if you are patient, it will certainly be best for those who are patient..Surely Allah is with those who guard (against evil) and those who do good (to others)". 

The sensitivity of the issue is pictured in God's address to David, the prophet-king 34:10-11. As he was given mastery over a crucial component in warfare -iron-, he and all those after him are told that in their use of that martial technology, God is ever seeing of what they do, indicating that they should use this means in the path of righteous deed, not in the way of oppression, cruelty, and sin.

Fighting cannot be directed at those 

60:8"who have not made war against you on account of (your) religion, and have not driven you forth from your homes..show them kindness and deal with them justly; surely Allah loves the doers of justice". 

Al-Tabari states that this applies to people of “all ways of life and religions". Nothing abrogates this principle. This is because being friendly and lenient with non-Muslims does not contradict severing ties with those same ones and even fighting them if it is to establish justice and claim one's rights. The Arabic birr/compassion is the same one the Quran uses when instructing Muslims on how to treat their own parents 17:23-4. Others towards whom defensive jihad cannot be directed are those who come in peace without any desire to fight 4:90. Not all of Islam's opponents are alike, some do not strive actively for the extermination of Muslims and should therefore not be fought in the same way as one would engage an armed enemy. They, as well as others could have been deliberately misinformed and are thus given the benefit of the doubt 

60:7"It may be that Allah will bring about friendship between you and those whom you hold to be your enemies among them; and Allah is Powerful; and Allah is Forgiving, Merciful". 

We see how the Quran engages the issue of warfare in the most sublime and pragmatic of ways. The very foundations of the divine law, as taught by all Prophets, is the establishment of justice and to argue a person has no right to seek his rights is an absolute wrong. The Quran has taught the best attitude, and that is to forgive and continue calling people to right and goodness, even if the people try and persecute another but when the persecution becomes unbearable and life threatening, hindering one from religious freedom then retaliation is permitted, but never above and beyond what a person has himself received.

The early Medinite Muslim community lived in an atmosphere of constant threat from inside and outside the city. They would never lay down to sleep except with their weapons with them and had to be in constant preparation for attacks from all sides, by the pagans of all Arabia, and their allies among the people of the book 

8:60"And prepare against them what force you can and horses tied at the frontier, to frighten thereby the enemy of Allah and your enemy and others besides them, whom you do not know (but) Allah knows them". 

The noble prophet, seeing himself as the guardian of the community was very often at the forefront in the case of a potential attack 

"Once the people got frightened, so Allah's Messenger rode a slow horse belonging to Abu Talha, and he set out all alone, making the horse gallop. Then the people rode, making their horses gallop after him. On his return he said, "Don't be afraid (there is nothing to be afraid of) (and I have found) this horse a very fast one." That horse was never excelled in running hence forward".

This is one of the features of defensive Jihad, as is done by most governments around the world today; dissuasion through constant military readiness of any potential enemy, known or hidden. In the case an attack is launched, then the Muslims counter attack will not delay so as to imperil the community. This deterring method creates an atmosphere where diplomacy might be preferred than risking confrontation. However even in such an atmosphere, Muslims themselves should never beg for peace when they are in an state of inferiority. This is simple common sense from a military perspective, as it would expose a weak mindset to the enemy who would in turn be further emboldened in his belligerent attitude. Only in a state of superiority should they go and seek peace from the enemy in order to avoid further bloodshed. This is exactly what the prophet would instruct the soldiers to do when about to confront an open enemy. 

But should on the other hand the opposite party come with a peace offer then the believers are told to rely on Allah and "incline", ie be receptive to it 

8:61"And if they incline to peace, then incline to it and trust in Allah; surely He is the Hearing, the Knowing". 

God will strengthen and protect those who actively rely on Him, as He did in the past, in case their aggressors seek to deceive them 8:62.